Critically evaluate the theory of critical minimum effort. Also bring out its limitations.

 The theory of critical minimum effort is associated with the name of Harvey Leibenstein. The theory is based on the relationship between the three factors, viz. (i) per capital income, (ii) population growth, and (iii) investment. Leibenstein identified population as an income-depressing factor (or a ‘shock’), whereas investment is and income-generating (or a ‘stimulant’). Growth in an economy is possible when the income-generating factors turnout to be more powerful than the income-depressing factors. A small additional investment may generate a small income. The additional income would be eaten up the additions to the populations which may come in the wake of the additional income, and hence the effort may fail to generals a cumulative process of growth. An initial large volume of investment may outweigh the growth of population problems. The theory is criticized on the following grounds:

(i).Leibenstein assumes that population increases as the income rises above the subsistence level. Beyond a particular level of income, population declines. This assumption implies that rise in income has a direct bearing on the growth of population. But, in reality, this relation is not so simple. Growth of population is influenced by social attitudes, customs traditions of the people and not merely by the per capital income.

(ii) The functional relation between per capital income and income growth rate is not as simple as assumes by Leibenstein. It is complex and has two stages. In the first state, the level of per capita income influences the rate of saving and investment which, in turn, depends on the pattern of income distribution and the effectiveness of financial institutions in mobilizing saving. In the second stage, the relation between investment and resultant output depends upon the economic and social system of the country. The relationship can be improved through innovations. The meaningful innovation is possible when updated technology, skilled labour and necessary infrastructure in the country. However, there are not available in the initial phase of development.

(iii)In underdeveloped countries external forces play an important role in the initial stages of development. This theory does not explain clearly the role of external forces like foreign capital, foreign trade, international economic relations etc. These forces exert a vital impact on development and these factors play an important role in the development process.

Discuss various kinds of perils under the cargo insurance.

Cargo carried on the main deck of the vessel, or other spaces above the main deck; cargo carried on deck is subject to damage by wind, sea water, and being washed overboard.

Open Policy A cargo policy with no expiration date that provides automatic coverage of cargo shipments to or from an Assured in a specified trade at agreed rates, terms, and conditions. The marine and war policies are usually two separate open policies.

Partial Loss: Any loss to cargo or a vessel that is less than a total loss. If the partial loss is directly caused by a peril insured against, it is a particular average loss.

Particular Average (PA) A partial loss of the property insured (vessel or cargo, including total loss of part of a cargo shipment) caused by a peril insured against, and which is not a General Average loss.

Pilferage

The theft of part or all of the contents from a shipping package where the package itself is delivered at destination.

Recovery Amount received from a third party responsible for a loss on which a claim has been paid.

Risk

A fortuitous peril or hazard; i.e. something that may happen, not something that is inevitable.

Sacrifice

The deliberate destruction or jettisoning of property to prevent greater loss.

Settling Agent

An insurance company's representative in a foreign country who is authorized to settle claims and make payment on behalf of the insurance company.

Special Drawing Rights (SDR)

An international monetary unit used to measure and compare the changing market values of currencies of member countries of the International Monetary Fund. It is equal to the market value of currencies of the 5 member countries: United States, France, Germany, Japan and England. SR&CC Warranty (Strikes, Riots & Civil Commotions)

A clause in marine insurance policies that excludes liability for losses caused by the acts of strikers, locked-out workers, or persons taking part in labor disturbances or riots or civil commotions or for losses which are directly caused by persons acting maliciously. This coverage may be restored to the policy by means of the SR&CC Endorsement, for an additional premium. Total Loss Only (TLO)

An insurance policy covering ONLY the total loss of an entire vessel, an entire cargo shipment, or other property from an insured peril. A partial loss, even from an insured peril, is NOT covered by the Total

Loss Only policy. Valuation Clause

The clause in the Marine Policy that contains a consistent basis of valuation agreed upon by the Assured and the insurance company and which establishes the insured value of the cargo or vessel when the insurance attaches.

Warehouse To Warehouse Clause

A clause in a cargo policy defining when coverage attaches and terminates.

Coverage attaches when the cargo leaves the warehouse at the place named in the policy, and

continues during the ordinary course of transit after discharge at the final port.

Coverage ends when one of the following first occurs:

When the cargo is delivered at the final warehouse at the destination named in the policy , or 15 days after discharge if the final destination is within the port, or 30 days after discharge if the final destination

is outside the port.

Warranty

An undertaking in which the Assured promises to comply with certain conditions. Non-compliance constitutes a breach of warranty and the insurance company is discharged from liability from the date of the breach.

Expressed Warranty - An agreement written in the policy that the Assured must strictly and literally comply with. A violation thereof voids the insurance; e.g. trading warranties.

Implied Warranty - Fundamental conditions implied in a contract of marine insurance:

1. Seaworthiness of the vessel;

2. Legality of the adventure.

War Risks

Those risks related to two (or more) belligerents engaging in hostilities, whether or not there has been a formal declaration of war. Such risks are excluded by the F.C. & S. (Free of Capture and Seizure) Warranty, but may be covered by a separate War Risk Policy, at an additional premium.

Wear & Tear

The ordinary wearing away of the various parts of a vessel, machinery, and equipment through use.

Such damage is not accidental in nature, but is inevitable.

Explain the methods and techniques of Gandhian Social Work.

Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and political leadership skills. Indians in South Africa were led by wealthy Muslims, who employed Gandhi as a lawyer, and by impoverished Hindu indentured laborers with very limited rights. Gandhi considered them all to be Indians, taking a lifetime view that "Indianness" transcended religion and caste. He believed he could bridge historic differences, especially regarding religion, and he took that belief back to India where he tried to implement it. The South African experience exposed handicaps to Gandhi that he had not known about. He realised he was out of contact with the enormous complexities of religious and cultural life in India, and believed he understood India by getting to know and leading Indians in South Africa.

In South Africa, Gandhi faced the discrimination directed at all coloured people. He was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first-class. He protested and was allowed on first class the next day. Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was beaten by a driver for refusing to move to make room for a European passenger. He suffered other hardships on the journey as well, including being barred from several hotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.

These events were a turning point in Gandhi's life and shaped his social activism and awakened him to social injustice. After witnessing racism, prejudice and injustice against Indians in South Africa, Gandhi began to question his place in society and his people's standing in the British Empire.

Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africa to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote. Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894,[12][24] and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. He, however, refused to press charges against any member of the mob, stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for a personal wrong in a court of law.

In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian population. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or non-violent protest, for the first time. He urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. The community adopted this plan, and during the ensuing seven-year struggle, thousands of Indians were jailed, flogged, or shot for striking, refusing to register, for burning their registration cards or engaging in other forms of non-violent resistance. The government successfully repressed the Indian protesters, but the public outcry over the harsh treatment of peaceful Indian protesters by the South African government forced South African General Jan Christiaan Smuts to negotiate a compromise with Gandhi. Gandhi's ideas took shape, and the concept of satyagraha matured during this struggle.

What do you understand by the term Renaissance? Discuss.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a flowering of literature, science, art, religion, and politics, and a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Traditionally, this intellectual transformation has resulted in the Renaissance being viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".

There is a consensus the Renaissance began in Florence, Tuscany in the 14th century. Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time; its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.

The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and there has been much debate among historians as to the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. Some have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for the classical age, while others have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras. Indeed, some have called for an end to the use of the term, which they see as a product of presentism – the use of history to validate and glorify modern ideals. The word Renaissance has also been used to describe other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.

Discuss the role of Gandhi during the national movement.

Gandhi initially favoured offering "non-violent moral support" to the British effort when World War II broke out in 1939, but the Congressional leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion of India in the war without consultation of the people's representatives. All Congressmen resigned from office. After long deliberations, Gandhi declared that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.

Gandhi was criticized by some Congress party members and other Indian political groups, both pro-British and anti-British. Some felt that not supporting Britain more in its struggle against Nazi Germany was unethical. Others felt that Gandhi's refusal for India to participate in the war was insufficient and more direct opposition should be taken, while Britain fought against Nazism yet continued to contradict itself by refusing to grant India Independence. Quit India became the most forceful movement in the history of the struggle, with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale. Thousands of freedom fighters were killed or injured by police gunfire, and hundreds of thousands were arrested. Gandhi and his supporters made it clear they would not support the war effort unless India was granted immediate independence. He even clarified that this time the movement would not be stopped if individual acts of violence were committed, saying that the "ordered anarchy" around him was "worse than real anarchy." He called on all Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline via ahimsa, and Karo Ya Maro ("Do or Die") in the cause of ultimate freedom.[citation needed]

Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee were arrested in Bombay by the British on 9 August 1942. Gandhi was held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. It was here that Gandhi suffered two terrible blows in his personal life. His 50-year old secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his wife Kasturba died after 18 months imprisonment on 22 February 1944; six weeks later Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. He was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered political scene—the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage"[64] and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi met Jinnah in September 1944 in Bombay but Jinnah rejected, on the grounds that it fell short of a fully independent Pakistan, his proposal of the right of Muslim provinces to opt out of substantial parts of the forthcoming political union